Python 游戲開(kāi)發(fā)中的 16 個(gè)關(guān)鍵概念
大家好!今天我們要聊的是Python游戲開(kāi)發(fā)中的一些關(guān)鍵概念。無(wú)論是初學(xué)者還是有一定經(jīng)驗(yàn)的開(kāi)發(fā)者,了解這些概念都將有助于你更好地掌握游戲開(kāi)發(fā)的基礎(chǔ)。接下來(lái),我們將從簡(jiǎn)單的概念入手,逐步過(guò)渡到更復(fù)雜的技巧。
1. 游戲引擎
游戲引擎是游戲開(kāi)發(fā)的核心工具。它提供了一套完整的框架,幫助開(kāi)發(fā)者構(gòu)建游戲。Python有多個(gè)游戲引擎,如Pygame和Arcade。這些引擎簡(jiǎn)化了圖形處理、事件處理等任務(wù)。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
# 設(shè)置窗口大小
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
# 設(shè)置標(biāo)題
pygame.display.set_caption("Hello World Game")
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
# 更新屏幕
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何使用Pygame創(chuàng)建一個(gè)基本的游戲窗口。pygame.init() 初始化所有導(dǎo)入的Pygame模塊。pygame.display.set_mode() 創(chuàng)建了一個(gè)游戲窗口。主循環(huán)檢查用戶是否關(guān)閉了窗口,如果是,則退出游戲。
2. 圖形繪制
在游戲開(kāi)發(fā)中,圖形繪制是必不可少的一部分。你可以使用Pygame提供的函數(shù)來(lái)繪制各種形狀。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
# 設(shè)置窗口大小
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
# 設(shè)置標(biāo)題
pygame.display.set_caption("Hello World Game")
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
# 更新屏幕
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 在這個(gè)例子中,我們使用pygame.draw.rect() 和 pygame.draw.circle() 函數(shù)繪制了一個(gè)矩形和一個(gè)圓圈。screen.fill(WHITE) 用于填充背景色。
3. 碰撞檢測(cè)
碰撞檢測(cè)是游戲中非常重要的一環(huán),它決定了兩個(gè)物體是否發(fā)生了接觸。Pygame提供了多種方法來(lái)進(jìn)行碰撞檢測(cè)。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Collision Detection")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
BLUE = (0, 0, 255)
player_rect = pygame.Rect(100, 100, 50, 50)
enemy_rect = pygame.Rect(700, 500, 50, 50)
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
player_rect.x -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
player_rect.x += 5
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
player_rect.y -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_DOWN]:
player_rect.y += 5
screen.fill(WHITE)
pygame.draw.rect(screen, RED, player_rect)
pygame.draw.rect(screen, BLUE, enemy_rect)
if player_rect.colliderect(enemy_rect):
print("Collision detected!")
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何使用鍵盤控制一個(gè)紅色方塊移動(dòng),并檢測(cè)它是否與另一個(gè)藍(lán)色方塊發(fā)生了碰撞。colliderect() 方法用于檢測(cè)兩個(gè)矩形是否相交。
4. 動(dòng)畫(huà)效果
動(dòng)畫(huà)是使游戲更具吸引力的關(guān)鍵因素之一。通過(guò)改變物體的位置或狀態(tài),可以實(shí)現(xiàn)簡(jiǎn)單的動(dòng)畫(huà)效果。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Basic Animation")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
ball_pos_x = 100
ball_pos_y = 100
ball_speed_x = 5
ball_speed_y = 5
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
ball_pos_x += ball_speed_x
ball_pos_y += ball_speed_y
if ball_pos_x > 750 or ball_pos_x < 50:
ball_speed_x = -ball_speed_x
if ball_pos_y > 550 or ball_pos_y < 50:
ball_speed_y = -ball_speed_y
screen.fill(WHITE)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, RED, [ball_pos_x, ball_pos_y], 50)
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這個(gè)例子演示了如何實(shí)現(xiàn)一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的球體反彈動(dòng)畫(huà)。通過(guò)不斷改變球的位置,并在碰到邊緣時(shí)反轉(zhuǎn)速度方向,實(shí)現(xiàn)了動(dòng)畫(huà)效果。
5. 用戶輸入
在游戲中,處理用戶的輸入是非常重要的。Pygame提供了多種方法來(lái)獲取用戶的鍵盤和鼠標(biāo)輸入。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("User Input Handling")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
GREEN = (0, 255, 0)
player_pos = [100, 100]
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
player_pos[0] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
player_pos[0] += 5
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
player_pos[1] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_DOWN]:
player_pos[1] += 5
screen.fill(WHITE)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, GREEN, player_pos, 50)
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何使用鍵盤控制一個(gè)綠色圓圈移動(dòng)。通過(guò)監(jiān)聽(tīng)鍵盤事件并更新圓圈的位置,實(shí)現(xiàn)了用戶輸入的處理。
6. 游戲音效
音效是提升游戲體驗(yàn)的重要元素之一。Pygame支持加載和播放音效文件。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Game Sound Effects")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
BLUE = (0, 0, 255)
# 加載音效文件
sound_effect = pygame.mixer.Sound("sound_effect.wav")
player_pos = [100, 100]
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
player_pos[0] -= 5
sound_effect.play() # 播放音效
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
player_pos[0] += 5
sound_effect.play()
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
player_pos[1] -= 5
sound_effect.play()
if keys[pygame.K_DOWN]:
player_pos[1] += 5
sound_effect.play()
screen.fill(WHITE)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, BLUE, player_pos, 50)
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這個(gè)例子展示了如何在每次用戶按鍵時(shí)播放音效。pygame.mixer.Sound() 用于加載音效文件,play() 方法用于播放音效。
7. 游戲狀態(tài)管理
游戲狀態(tài)管理是指在游戲中管理不同的狀態(tài),例如游戲開(kāi)始、游戲進(jìn)行中、游戲結(jié)束等。通過(guò)狀態(tài)管理,我們可以更清晰地組織游戲邏輯。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Game State Management")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
BLUE = (0, 0, 255)
STATE_START = 0
STATE_PLAYING = 1
STATE_END = 2
state = STATE_START
player_pos = [100, 100]
enemy_pos = [700, 500]
def start_screen():
screen.fill(WHITE)
font = pygame.font.Font(None, 50)
text = font.render("Press SPACE to Start", True, RED)
screen.blit(text, [200, 300])
def playing_screen():
screen.fill(WHITE)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, RED, player_pos, 50)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, BLUE, enemy_pos, 50)
def end_screen():
screen.fill(WHITE)
font = pygame.font.Font(None, 50)
text = font.render("Game Over! Press SPACE to Restart", True, RED)
screen.blit(text, [100, 300])
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
elif event.type == pygame.KEYDOWN:
if event.key == pygame.K_SPACE:
if state == STATE_START:
state = STATE_PLAYING
elif state == STATE_END:
state = STATE_PLAYING
if state == STATE_START:
start_screen()
elif state == STATE_PLAYING:
playing_screen()
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
player_pos[0] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
player_pos[0] += 5
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
player_pos[1] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_DOWN]:
player_pos[1] += 5
if player_pos[0] > enemy_pos[0] - 50 and player_pos[0] < enemy_pos[0] + 50:
if player_pos[1] > enemy_pos[1] - 50 and player_pos[1] < enemy_pos[1] + 50:
state = STATE_END
elif state == STATE_END:
end_screen()
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何使用狀態(tài)管理來(lái)控制游戲的不同階段。通過(guò)定義不同的狀態(tài)(STATE_START, STATE_PLAYING, STATE_END),我們可以根據(jù)當(dāng)前的狀態(tài)執(zhí)行不同的操作。當(dāng)玩家按下空格鍵時(shí),游戲狀態(tài)會(huì)切換。
8. 文本顯示
在游戲中顯示文本信息也是非常常見(jiàn)的需求,例如顯示得分、提示信息等。Pygame提供了字體渲染的功能。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Text Display in Games")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
BLACK = (0, 0, 0)
score = 0
font = pygame.font.Font(None, 36)
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
screen.fill(WHITE)
# 顯示得分
score_text = font.render(f"Score: {score}", True, BLACK)
screen.blit(score_text, [10, 10])
# 顯示提示信息
hint_text = font.render("Press SPACE to Increase Score", True, BLACK)
screen.blit(hint_text, [10, 50])
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_SPACE]:
score += 1
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何在屏幕上顯示文本信息。pygame.font.Font() 用于創(chuàng)建字體對(duì)象,render() 方法用于渲染文本,blit() 方法用于將渲染好的文本繪制到屏幕上。
9. 游戲循環(huán)
游戲循環(huán)是游戲開(kāi)發(fā)中最核心的部分之一。它負(fù)責(zé)不斷地刷新屏幕、處理事件、更新游戲狀態(tài)等。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Game Loop")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
BLUE = (0, 0, 255)
player_pos = [100, 100]
enemy_pos = [700, 500]
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
player_pos[0] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
player_pos[0] += 5
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
player_pos[1] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_DOWN]:
player_pos[1] += 5
screen.fill(WHITE)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, RED, player_pos, 50)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, BLUE, enemy_pos, 50)
if player_pos[0] > enemy_pos[0] - 50 and player_pos[0] < enemy_pos[0] + 50:
if player_pos[1] > enemy_pos[1] - 50 and player_pos[1] < enemy_pos[1] + 50:
print("Collision detected!")
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了游戲循環(huán)的基本結(jié)構(gòu)。游戲循環(huán)不斷地處理事件、更新游戲狀態(tài)、繪制畫(huà)面,并檢查碰撞。這是游戲運(yùn)行的基礎(chǔ)。
10. 游戲資源加載
在游戲中,我們需要加載各種資源,例如圖像、音頻、字體等。Pygame提供了相應(yīng)的函數(shù)來(lái)加載這些資源。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Resource Loading")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
BLUE = (0, 0, 255)
# 加載圖像資源
player_image = pygame.image.load("player.png")
enemy_image = pygame.image.load("enemy.png")
player_pos = [100, 100]
enemy_pos = [700, 500]
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
player_pos[0] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
player_pos[0] += 5
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
player_pos[1] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_DOWN]:
player_pos[1] += 5
screen.fill(WHITE)
screen.blit(player_image, player_pos)
screen.blit(enemy_image, enemy_pos)
if player_pos[0] > enemy_pos[0] - 50 and player_pos[0] < enemy_pos[0] + 50:
if player_pos[1] > enemy_pos[1] - 50 and player_pos[1] < enemy_pos[1] + 50:
print("Collision detected!")
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何加載圖像資源并將其繪制到屏幕上。pygame.image.load() 用于加載圖像文件,blit() 方法用于將圖像繪制到屏幕上。
11. 游戲物理
游戲物理是模擬現(xiàn)實(shí)世界物理行為的關(guān)鍵技術(shù),例如重力、摩擦力等。通過(guò)適當(dāng)?shù)奈锢砟M,可以使游戲更加真實(shí)。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Game Physics")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
player_pos = [100, 100]
player_speed = [0, 0]
gravity = 0.5
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
player_speed[0] -= 1
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
player_speed[0] += 1
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
player_speed[1] -= 5
player_speed[1] += gravity
player_pos[0] += player_speed[0]
player_pos[1] += player_speed[1]
if player_pos[1] > 550:
player_pos[1] = 550
player_speed[1] = 0
screen.fill(WHITE)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, RED, player_pos, 50)
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何實(shí)現(xiàn)簡(jiǎn)單的重力效果。通過(guò)不斷更新速度和位置,可以模擬出一個(gè)物體受到重力影響的效果。
12. 事件處理
事件處理是游戲開(kāi)發(fā)中的重要組成部分,它負(fù)責(zé)響應(yīng)用戶的輸入和其他外部事件。Pygame提供了豐富的事件處理機(jī)制。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Event Handling")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
player_pos = [100, 100]
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
elif event.type == pygame.KEYDOWN:
if event.key == pygame.K_LEFT:
player_pos[0] -= 5
elif event.key == pygame.K_RIGHT:
player_pos[0] += 5
elif event.key == pygame.K_UP:
player_pos[1] -= 5
elif event.key == pygame.K_DOWN:
player_pos[1] += 5
screen.fill(WHITE)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, RED, player_pos, 50)
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何處理鍵盤事件。通過(guò)監(jiān)聽(tīng)KEYDOWN事件,可以響應(yīng)用戶的按鍵操作,并更新玩家的位置。
13. 游戲音軌
除了音效外,游戲還經(jīng)常需要背景音樂(lè)。Pygame支持加載和播放背景音樂(lè)。
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Game Music")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
# 加載背景音樂(lè)
pygame.mixer.music.load("background_music.mp3")
pygame.mixer.music.play(-1) # 循環(huán)播放
player_pos = [100, 100]
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
player_pos[0] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
player_pos[0] += 5
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
player_pos[1] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_DOWN]:
player_pos[1] += 5
screen.fill(WHITE)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, RED, player_pos, 50)
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何加載背景音樂(lè)并循環(huán)播放。pygame.mixer.music.load() 用于加載音樂(lè)文件,pygame.mixer.music.play(-1) 用于循環(huán)播放音樂(lè)。
14. 精靈類
精靈類是Pygame中用于表示游戲?qū)ο蟮囊环N方式。通過(guò)使用精靈類,可以更容易地管理多個(gè)游戲?qū)ο蟆?/p>
示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Sprite Class")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
BLUE = (0, 0, 255)
class Player(pygame.sprite.Sprite):
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
self.image = pygame.Surface([50, 50])
self.image.fill(RED)
self.rect = self.image.get_rect()
self.rect.center = (100, 100)
self.speed = [0, 0]
def update(self):
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
self.speed[0] -= 1
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
self.speed[0] += 1
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
self.speed[1] -= 1
if keys[pygame.K_DOWN]:
self.speed[1] += 1
self.rect.move_ip(self.speed)
class Enemy(pygame.sprite.Sprite):
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
self.image = pygame.Surface([50, 50])
self.image.fill(BLUE)
self.rect = self.image.get_rect()
self.rect.center = (700, 500)
def update(self):
pass
all_sprites = pygame.sprite.Group()
player = Player()
enemy = Enemy()
all_sprites.add(player, enemy)
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
all_sprites.update()
screen.fill(WHITE)
all_sprites.draw(screen)
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何使用精靈類來(lái)表示游戲中的對(duì)象。通過(guò)繼承pygame.sprite.Sprite類,我們可以輕松地管理和更新多個(gè)游戲?qū)ο蟆?/p>
15. 碰撞組
碰撞組是用于處理多個(gè)對(duì)象之間碰撞檢測(cè)的一種方式。通過(guò)使用碰撞組,可以更方便地管理碰撞檢測(cè)。
示示例代碼:
import pygame
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Collision Groups")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
BLUE = (0, 0, 255)
class Player(pygame.sprite.Sprite):
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
self.image = pygame.Surface([50, 50])
self.image.fill(RED)
self.rect = self.image.get_rect()
self.rect.center = (100, 100)
self.speed = [0, 0]
def update(self):
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
self.speed[0] -= 1
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
self.speed[0] += 1
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
self.speed[1] -= 1
if keys[pygame.K_DOWN]:
self.speed[1] += 1
self.rect.move_ip(self.speed)
class Enemy(pygame.sprite.Sprite):
def __init__(self, x, y):
super().__init__()
self.image = pygame.Surface([50, 50])
self.image.fill(BLUE)
self.rect = self.image.get_rect()
self.rect.center = (x, y)
def update(self):
pass
all_sprites = pygame.sprite.Group()
player = Player()
all_sprites.add(player)
enemies = pygame.sprite.Group()
for i in range(5):
enemy = Enemy(700 + i * 100, 500)
enemies.add(enemy)
all_sprites.add(enemy)
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
all_sprites.update()
screen.fill(WHITE)
all_sprites.draw(screen)
if pygame.sprite.spritecollideany(player, enemies):
print("Collision detected!")
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何使用碰撞組來(lái)檢測(cè)多個(gè)敵人的碰撞。pygame.sprite.spritecollideany() 用于檢測(cè)玩家是否與任何敵人發(fā)生碰撞。
16. 游戲保存與加載
在游戲中保存和加載數(shù)據(jù)是非常重要的功能,它可以記錄玩家的進(jìn)度、設(shè)置等信息。
示例代碼:
import pygame
import json
pygame.init()
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((800, 600))
pygame.display.set_caption("Save and Load Game Data")
WHITE = (255, 255, 255)
RED = (255, 0, 0)
player_pos = [100, 100]
score = 0
def save_game_data():
data = {
"player_pos": player_pos,
"score": score
}
with open("game_data.json", "w") as file:
json.dump(data, file)
def load_game_data():
try:
with open("game_data.json", "r") as file:
data = json.load(file)
return data["player_pos"], data["score"]
except FileNotFoundError:
return [100, 100], 0
player_pos, score = load_game_data()
running = True
while running:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
elif event.type == pygame.KEYDOWN:
if event.key == pygame.K_s:
save_game_data()
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()
if keys[pygame.K_LEFT]:
player_pos[0] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_RIGHT]:
player_pos[0] += 5
if keys[pygame.K_UP]:
player_pos[1] -= 5
if keys[pygame.K_DOWN]:
player_pos[1] += 5
screen.fill(WHITE)
pygame.draw.circle(screen, RED, player_pos, 50)
pygame.display.flip()
pygame.quit()
代碼解釋: 這段代碼展示了如何保存和加載游戲數(shù)據(jù)。通過(guò)使用json模塊,我們可以將游戲數(shù)據(jù)保存到文件中,并在下次啟動(dòng)游戲時(shí)加載這些數(shù)據(jù)。
以上就是關(guān)于Python游戲開(kāi)發(fā)中的16個(gè)關(guān)鍵概念的詳細(xì)介紹。